Once you understand the basics, it’s time to go deeper! Intermediate topics help you write cleaner, more efficient, and more powerful Python programs.
1. File Handling (Read & Write)
Python lets you easily work with files — reading and writing data.
# Write to a file
with open("example.txt", "w") as file:
file.write("Hello, this is Python!\n")
# Read from a file
with open("example.txt", "r") as file:
content = file.read()
print(content)
2. Modules & Packages
Modules are reusable code files. Python comes with many built-in ones, like math or random.
import math
import random
print(math.sqrt(16)) # 4.0
print(random.randint(1, 10)) # Random number between 1–10
3. Error & Exception Handling
Errors happen. Exceptions let your program fail gracefully instead of crashing.
try:
number = int("abc") # This will raise an error
except ValueError:
print("Oops! That was not a number.")
finally:
print("Execution finished.")
4. List Comprehensions
A shorter, cleaner way to create lists.
# Normal way
squares = []
for i in range(5):
squares.append(i**2)
# List comprehension
squares2 = [i**2 for i in range(5)]
print(squares2) # [0, 1, 4, 9, 16]
5. Working with Libraries in Python
Python has thousands of external libraries. For example, requests helps you fetch data from the internet.
import requests
response = requests.get("https://api.github.com")
print(response.status_code) # 200 means OK
6. Object-Oriented Programming Basics
OOP organizes code into classes and objects.
class Dog:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name
def bark(self):
print(f"{self.name} says woof!")
my_dog = Dog("Buddy")
my_dog.bark() # Buddy says woof!
7. Classes and Objects in Python
Objects are instances of classes. You can give them properties and methods.
class Car:
def __init__(self, brand, year):
self.brand = brand
self.year = year
def info(self):
return f"{self.brand} - {self.year}"
car1 = Car("Tesla", 2023)
print(car1.info()) # Tesla - 2023
8. Virtual Environments in Python
Virtual environments help manage dependencies for different projects.
# Create a virtual environment
python -m venv myenv
# Activate (Windows)
myenv\Scripts\activate
# Activate (Mac/Linux)
source myenv/bin/activate👉 At this level, you will begin to use Python in a more professional manner. File management, error handling, classes, and libraries form the foundation of real projects.